Copyrighting Beats: FAQ

The truth is, you actually own a fabulous copyright to get anyth copyright-eligible that you simply create: beats, lyrics, verses, text, snap shots, paint s-You brand it, note the created them (and registered it one way or another, either personally or digitally), you use it.

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Analysis of PCB sample

The first step in any success analysis is the collection of a sample. The sample collected must meet the objectives of the sample design. e.g., representative of the whole. The sample collection, handling, and storage techniques should eliminate or at least minimize losses or contamination which can affect the accuracy of the reported results.

PCBs are an inert, nonpolar class of semivolatile organic compounds. As such, they are reasonably well behaved during sample collection and storage. Consequently, with the exceptions of the air and water sampling techniques which concentrate the PCBs from the matrix onto an adsorbent, most PCB sample collections have utilized the standard or customary methods for semivolatile organics in the subject matrix. For example, the American society for testing and materials(ASTM, 1991c)procedure for gas chromatography/electron capture detector(GC/ECD)determination of PCBs in environmental PCB Assembly matrices references general methods for water sampling, sediment and soid sampling, and air sampling. The reader is referred to general sampling and storage procedures in the absence of a PCB-specific method. Sampling for chemical analysis has been reviewed(Kratochvil et al., Keith 1991). Numbers(1994)reviewed PCB sampling, including setting objectives, approach and design,layout,and protocol.

This chapter discusses PCB-specific sampling design condiderations, sample collection techniques, and sample storage.

SAMPLING DESIGN

The selection of sampling sites, frequency of sampling, number of samples, measurement of physical and chemical parameters of the sample, and the overall statistical design of sampling methods are critial to a realistic assessment of the PCB concentration of the whole.The sampling design is directly related to the objectives of the specific study, research program, or regulatory action(see data quality objectives discussion in Chapters 9 and 11), the sampling design often strives to achieve representative samples to determine the mean and other statistical values for the whole(e.g., finding the mean concentration of PCBs in adipose of the U.S. population). Another common design maps the extent of contamination over an area or in a volume. For certain applications, the sampling design may strive to collect samples which represent the highest concentrations or hot spots. Other biased sampling designs also may be appropriate for certain applications. Two types of error traceable to the sampling design are possible. the first is a false positive, i.e., concluding that PCBs are present above electronic assembly an action limit when, in fact, they are not. The second is a false negative, i.e., failure to detect the presence of PCBs above an action limit. False nagetives can readily occur with hererogeneous contamination. For example, if a small area is contaminated within a much larger area being sampled, the probability of finding that area can be quite low without the aid of phycical clues such as staining of the surface. General considerations on sampling design have been provided in extensive detail(see, for example, Moser and Huibergtse, 1976; Mason, 1982; Boomer et al.. 1985; Kelso etal.. 1986 Gilbert, 1987).

PCB sampling desiges have been developed for assessment of the extent and levels of contamination of spills, landfills, ponds, and other sites. Two general designs are possible; random and grid. Grid designs are generally favored because they are easier to implement in the field via a rota protocol and are statistically more efficient than random design. A grid design is certain to detect a sufficiently large contaminated area, while a random design could miss detection of that same area. The classic square grid, widely used in environmental sampling environmental sampling, has even been applied to PCB sampling in a pond(Prohammer et al.,1985). Number(1994) provides an overview of grid sampling.

All-In-One Environment Serves PCB/System Designers

Version 6.3 of the Altium Designer environment is targeted directly at those looking to migrate from competing PCB design systems, including OrCAD and PADS. Altium Design 6.3 includes a number of enhancements to entice a switch, as well as features that accelerate design for current users.

Users of legacy point-tools will benefit in general from Altium Designer's system orientation, which includes full FPGA development capabilities as well as PCB design capabilities. The unified development environment is intended to allow users to make the transition from “board designer” or “embedded designer” to “systems designer.”

But what makes Altium Designer work so well for OrCAD or PADS PCB users? For one, there's a new PADS library importer, electronic assembly which enables users to seamlessly import PADS footprint libraries to Altium Designer. It'll import ASCII library files from PADS versions up to PADS PowerPCB 2005. For the OrCAD side, Altium's existing OrCAD importer has been enhanced in v6.3 to support OrCAD design components that include simulation data. This includes both simulation-ready schematics and schematic libraries.

There's also a unified PADS/OrCAD importer that creates integrated libraries from a combination of OrCAD schematic symbols and PADS footprints (patterns). This importer also includes a wizard that supports the importing of OrCAD schematics and PADS PCB documents into a single Altium Designer project in one operation.

Existing Altium Designer users who install v6.3 will see a significant boost in graphics performance for the PCB editor. This comes by way of a new hardware-accelerated graphics engine that makes use of Microsoft's latest DirectX technologies. Users can expect speed increases of around 20X when zooming and panning, making the redraw PCB Assembly speed on design documents virtually instantaneous. It also brings native support for 3D rendering directly in the PCB editor, which enables “real-time” design visualization.

28GHz Multi-Chip Modules

Abstract

Broadband Wireless Access systems, such as Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) and Multipoint Video Distribution Systems (MVDS) tend to operate at mm-wave frequencies where large allocations of spectrum are available. These frequencies were previously utilised by low volume applications such as radio astronomy and military systems. The techniques developed and the prices of parts reflected this. As the consumer market for Broadband Wireless Access equipment matures, new techniques are being developed which allow the production of mm-wave equipment in high volumes at low prices. This paper describes the design and development of upconverter and downconverter Multi- Chip Modules (MCMs) suitable for manufacture at low cost, in high volumes. The modules utilise printed filters, GaAs MMICs, discrete SMT components and a PTFE composite soft substrate.

Introduction

Equipment operating at mm-wave frequencies was traditionally the preserve of radio astronomy and the military. Systems were produced in low volumes and were normally hand-crafted; as such they tended to be very expensive. Today the use of mm-wave systems for commercial applications is growing rapidly. In particular, broad band multi-media services, such as LMDS and MVDS, have the potential to become very high volume markets for mm-wave electronics. This growth in the commercial use of mm-wave equipment has placed tremendous pressure on suppliers to reduce their costs.

GaAs Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMICs) offer a means of fabricating large quantities of highly reproducible, low-cost mm-wave circuits. However, module assembly techniques, suitable for circuits operating at mm-wave frequencies, can be complex and costly. They also tend to be incompatible with low cost assembly methods, which could be adopted for the biasing, control and IF circuitry. This paper describes the development of a low cost route for producing mm-wave sub-system assemblies. A PTFE substrate is used, rather than ceramic and the attachment of bare die and SMT components can be performed in a single process step. Details of the design, fabrication and measurement of a 27.5 to 29.5GHz upconverter and a 27.5 to 29.5GHz downconverter, developed using these techniques, are presented.

Substrate Manufacture

Careful choice of substrate is vital. As well as being low cost, the substrate should possess the following properties for optimum use at mm-wave frequencies:

‧ Thin substrate height (to reduce dispersion and radiation losses)

‧ Low dielectric constant (helps reduce effects of tolerance variations and avoids dimensions of distributed structures becoming impractical)

‧ Well con

Compensating for Bondwire Inductance

Although the fabrication procedure used results in the shortest bondwire lengths, which are practical, there is still an associated inductance of around 0.3nH per bond, for 0.001” diameter wire. At lower frequencies the reactance this represents is very low and can be ignored. At mm-wave frequencies even such low inductances as this can cause significant

performance degradation. Figure 3 shows a plot of the simulated insertion loss and match of a 0.3nH bondwire versus frequency, in a 50Ω system. The return loss of the bondwire has fallen to below 10dB by 18GHz and to below 7dB by 28GHz with an associated insertion loss of more than 1dB.

It is clear that simply accepting the performance degradation caused by a 0.3nH bondwire at mm-wave frequencies is not acceptable. There are three options for resolving the problem:

1. Reduce the inductance by using multiple parallel bondwires or gold tape.

2. Use ICs which have been designed to accommodate a 0.3nH inductor at all RF ports.

3. Incorporate the inductance into a low pass filter structure.

Option 1 is not the best approach for low cost, high volume use. Multiple bonds increase assembly time and require a larger, non-standard bondpad (with more parasitic shunt capacitance) and tape bonding has a significant cost penalty. Option 2 is viable but requires all ICs to be designed for a specific assembly process. Also the RF On Wafer (RFOW) measured performance of the ICs will differ significantly from the in-circuit

performance as the RF port bondwire inductance, which the circuit’s performance has been optimised to include, would be missing. Option 3 allows ICs designed for best RFOW performance to be used. So long as the bondwire inductance is low enough, it can be

absorbed into a practical, low pass filter structure, such as that shown in Figure 4. The printed open circuit stubs act as a shunt capacitance and the narrow (high impedance) series microstrip line serves as an inductance to complete the third order low pass filter structure.Figure 5 shows the simulated performance of a low pass filter design, which uses this PCB Assembly technique to incorporate a 0.3nH bondwire inductance. It has been optimised for use up to 30GHz and improved return loss and insertion loss, as compared to the simple series bondwire case, is evident above 10GHz.

Downconverter Measured Performance

A downconverter MCM has been designed and fabricated using the methods described above. It operates over an RF frequency range of 27.5 to 29.5GHz, with an IF of 4GHz. The LO input is in the range 11.75 to 12.75GHz, as the downconverter utilises a sub-harmonic mixer which accepts a half frequency LO. All components used are commercially available. A block diagram of the complete downconverter is shown in Figure 6.

The LNA and the mixer are both 0.25μm gate length Pseudomorphic High Electron Mobility Transistor (PHEMT) MMICs, which are used in bare die form. Image filtering is realised using a five element, printed coupled line filter [1], whilst the low pass IF filter is a printed stub design. It is strictly a band-stop filter, which rejects the half LO output of the mixer, which can be particularly high for sub-harmonic mixers. An inexpensive SMT component is used to realise the IF amplifier, with a network of 0402 passives and printed stubs to flatten the gain versus frequency response.

In addition to the complete downconverter, a number of sub-circuits were fabricated on the same tile for diagnostic purposes. Figure 7 shows the measured performance of a sub-circuit comprising the IF low pass filter and IF amplifier. It exhibits a gain of 16dB at 4GHz and a rejection of over 55dB for the 11.75 to 12.75GHz half LO frequency range. The conversion gain, versus frequency of the complete downconverter is around 23dB, as

shown in Figure 9. Image rejection is over 35dB, across the band.

A plot of the IF port output spectrum for an RF input of -40dBm is shown in Figure 10. The subharmonic mixer contains a half LO amplifier and the level of unfiltered half LO at the IF output of the mixer is around +4dBm. This is quite significant and is the reason for the bandstop nature of the IF filter. The half LO level at the output of the entire downconverter is -39dBm, having been substantially attenuated by the IF filter. The quarter LO products are a result of quarter LO output from the signal source used to drive the LO. If this frequency component is present in the end system, a simple high pass filter on the LO port of the mixer can be used to provide attenuation.

Upconverter Measured Performance

Like the downconverter, the upconverter adopts a heterodyne architecture and uses only commercially available parts. Figure 11 shows a block diagram of the upconverter, which uses the same sub-harmonic mixer as the downconverter. All of the transmit chain RF amplifiers are 0.25μm gate length PHEMT MMICs, in bare die form.

The IF amplifier and low pass filter are similar to those in the receiver, although an amplifier

with higher intermodulation performance is used. Upconverters for LMDS systems, operating in the 28GHz band, are likely to use nonconstant envelope modulation schemes and good transmitter linearity will be important. Some system developers are also considering higher order modulation schemes, such as 16-QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation), where the requirements for linearity will be even more stringent in order to preserve modulation fidelity.

The unwanted sideband output from the mixer (LO-IF) will be at around the same level as the wanted RF signal (RF = LO+IF). The LO output will also be at a significant level and these, together with any other unwanted spurious outputs must be heavily attenuated prior to final amplification. Two five element coupled line band pass filters are used, one either side of the variable gain pre-driver, Figure 12 shows the measured performance of a

sub-circuit containing this structure. The image and LO rejection is over 70dB.The variable gain amplifier has a gain electronic assembly control range of over 15dB and can be used to adjust the post mixer gain to optimise linearity or compensate for gain variation with frequency or part to part. The overall conversion gain of the entire upconverter is around 43dB. Figure 13 shows the measured power transfer characteristics with a 1dB gain compressed output power level of +23dBm

Conclusions

A low cost process for manufacturing mm-wave modules, which is suitable for automation in volume manufacture, has been developed. A PTFE composite substrate is used, with mm-wave MMICs and SMT components assembled in a single process step. Two 27.5 to 29.5GHz MCMs, a downconverter and an upconverter, have been designed, manufactured and measured. The downconveter has a conversion gain of 23dB with 35dB of image rejection. The upconverter has a conversion gain of 43dB with a 1dB gain compressed output power of +23dBm. All of the components used are commercially available.

What are critical 3D machine vision system performance criteria

3. What are critical 3D machine vision system performance criteria? [Patrick] Repeatability, reproducibility, throughput/speed across all applications.? Some applications demand very high levels of sensitivity and accuracy. [Frank] Height resolution at 10% per gray value. [Stacy/Glen] Throughput, low false fails, high call accuracy and repeatability are typically performance criteria consider when comparing machine vision systems. [Shavi]

-?Speed of inspection - better than the automatic line tact time

-?Accuracy of results? (in PCB assemble Gage R&R better than 10% on smallest deposits)?

-?Fast set up time?

-?Support all PCB materials and finishes?

-?Less expensive than previous generation?

-?Connection of measurements to process control SW ( real time SPC)?

4. What changes have been taking place in the technologies that are the basis of 3D machine vision systems used in the electronic industry that has resulted in improved performance? [Frank] For triangulation applications partly improved resolution by enhanced laser optics.?

Faster data acquisition by specially designed ASICs, e.g. for triangulation evaluation directly on the camera chip. Advantages for stereoscopic approaches using megapixel camera chips (increased resolution at given overlap). Faster calculators/processors allow for more complicated 3d data evaluations

(Advantages for phase shifting approaches, real-time suppression/correction of artifacts etc.)

[Shavi] New sensors (large foot print ?higher resolution) and ability to control the data extraction algorithms. [Stacy/Glen] The evolution of solid shape modeling (SSM) to provide a full 3D view of components and solder paste deposits has taken the 3D machine vision concept for AOI to a new level.? This technology gives users the ability to maintain higher call accuracy and additionally gives users rotatable views of images that can assist them with process understanding.? Improved imaging technologies and the continuing improvement in price/performance of computers increase system performance while reducing system cost. [Patrick] Shadow moir?algorithms are getting smarter and more robust? - readily increasing the range of surfaces that can be analyzed with the technique.? Also, we are seeing better off-the-shelf image processing tools that help our analyses operate faster and more robustly. Image processing tools (such as part finder algorithms) represent good opportunities to increase performance at reduced cost.? For example, less accuracy is needed for part delivery into the inspection head to achieve the same quality level of measurement .??

5. Where do you see breakthroughs coming in the technologies that are the basis of 3D machine vision systems used in the electronic industry that will result in further improvements in the near future - next three years? [Stacy/Glen] Camera technologies and computer performance continue to advance and thus allow speeds and throughputs PCB Assembly to be positively impacted.? The evolution of software solutions such as Agilent's solid shape modeling (SSM) also provides users with more information to make improvements and facilitate understanding about their process, products, etc. The evolution of these two areas will drive 3D imaging. [Shavi] Better sensors (faster) that will allow further improvement in speed and larger sensor dimension that will allow larger FOV or longer line scanning. [Frank] Perhaps more intensive use of 3D-ASICs with faster performance [Patrick] Cost, processing speed and multifunctional systems (bundled capabilities) are always of interest to our customer抯 future needs.? We are only adopting/developing techniques that can move from the laboratory to the production floor.?

6. Are there market changes in the electronic industry that are driving the adoption of 3D machine vision? [Frank] Smaller structures (0201, pitch 0.3mm) needs test gates behind every production step due to higher possibility of faults. [Stacy/Glen] There are two main drivers for these changes and their adoption in the industry.? One category is quality and the other is technology.? The interest in quality is increasing as companies compete for assembly contracts, quality can be linked to 3D information in many cases with inspection and as such, 3D imaging is critical.? With regards to technology, smaller pitches, increased circuit density and speeds, advances in component technologies and the emergence of lead-free are impacting interested in 3D machine vision. [Patrick] In our business, yes.? There are definite issues with warpage for fine pitch devices that are on the leading edge of assembly technologies.? Larger BGA devices (40mm +), Lead-free processing techniques, bromine-free laminates materials, expanded options of underfill and encapsulants products ?all require characterization for impact on warpage.? Warpage can heighten defects dramatically on fine pitch assemblies. [Shavi] Yes - finer components and finer pitches of paste deposits require 3D view on them because the volume of the deposits is the main indicator of the level of good soldering. In addition it is also height. Imagine a BGA where not all deposits are the same height - not all balls will be soldered correctly.

7. How will 3D machine vision systems have to change to meet emerging applications in the electronic industry? [Patrick] Depends on the application.? But for our business we will seek to add additional functionality to our systems and/or incorporate our technology into existing/other inspection systems. [Shavi] 1) meet line speed 2) less expensive, 3) able to detect small deposits. [Stacy/Glen] Continuous evolution of speed and call accuracy, always with an eye toward cost, are typically required to meet the needs of emerging applications.?? [Frank] Perhaps more intuitive system operation.

8. As a supplier of 3D machine vision systems for the electronic industry what are some challenges you face in marketing such systems? [Frank] The market misunderstanding of what 3D really means.? Staying on the price performance curve. [Patrrick] As an emerging company, we are faced with a wide range of issues including: Distribution channels (i.e. indirect sales force); on-site demonstration systems; paradigm shift (i.e. new approach versus old approach) required for inspection mentality in some application areas. [Shavi] 1) Pass the accuracy test at each customer in order to meet requirements. 2) Education of market on the importance of 3D versus 2D systems. [Stacy/Glen] Customers' assembly lines continue to run faster and faster, and competition among suppliers of imaging equipment are driving the industry to design and build faster, more reliable, and less costly systems.

9. What are your thoughts on the future of 3D machine vision in the electronic industry? [Stacy/Glen] 3D electronic assembly techniques have the potential to offer a quantum leap in performance levels from advanced test and measurement equipment, particularly as densities increase, double sided boards become the norm, and end customers' reliability expectations continue to rise.? The powerful advantages of 3D techniques mean they are rapidly becoming the only safe bet for future test and inspection. [Patrick] We feel the future is very positive.? And not just in the electronics industry.? We are looking aggressively at other markets/industries that will benefit from our existing technologies and optical/non-contact metrology tools as a whole. [Shavi] There are a lot of segments that will require 3D inspection - Ball inspection, memory cards and also some semiconductor applications. [Frank] The importance of 3D inspection will increase for a certain (but as well limited) range of applications.? 3D will NOT replace 2D-solutions for all applications!

10. What advice would you give to a company investigating the purchase of a 3D machine vision system for an electronic industry application? [Shavi] 1) Check that the AOI machine is really meeting your specification of inspection: speed, setup time and accuracy. In addition a full solution is required to improve the process and additional SW tools should be available to make process improvements. [Frank] Analyze why you want 3D and the benefits that it brings your company before you review the possible solutions. [Patrick] Don't buy more than you need. We see numerous customers with a performance list (and/or wish list) that is far in excess of their primary applications. All this excess can greatly impact your price, cost of ownership and the ROI. Of course, one must think of future application needs, but see if the platform is upgradeable to accommodate future improvements that will cost less at a later date.

[Stacy/Glen] Considering a portfolio solution can improve the cost of ownership for the customer.? Be sure to include the cost of ownership and system flexibility in your considerations. These often impact the bottom line more than feature-based investigation of machine vision solutions.?? Also, a realistic analysis of the cost of passing along defects instead of finding and fixing them as early as possible will demonstrate the economics of 3D inspection.

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